Psychological mind work may incorporate the following therapists:
Psychiatrist: A doctor who specialises in treating people with mental illnesses. Unlike a psychiatrist have medical degrees and can prescribe medication.
Clinical Psychologist: An individual promoting mental health and subjective well being by understanding and treating mental disorders. Clinical psychologists work with individuals, children, couples, families, and groups. One of the ways clinical psychologists help treat clients is through.
Psychologist: An individual involved in the investigation and study of the human mind and helps diagnose and treat mental disorders. Psychologists have an advanced degree in several subfields.
Counselling psychologist: An individual who helps assess and treat clients with mild to moderate psychological disorders. Counselling psychologists’ help people come to terms with difficulties they might be facing in their lives e.g. bereavement or anxiety and teach them skills to help them cope. They also use psychotherapy to help treat clients.
Therapist/Psychotherapist: An individual who is skilled and has an advanced degree in a particular type of therapy. These include psychotherapy, family therapy, behaviour therapy, and cognitive therapy.
Counsellor: An individual who deals with several types of issues including social, cultural, developmental, physical, emotional, and mental problems. Counsellors in general deal with clients with less severe mental and emotional problems. They tend to advocate a more humanistic and client centred approach. Counsellors help treat clients using several methods including cognitive behaviour and psychodynamic therapies.
Approaches:
Structuralism: From this perspective, the best way to learn about the mind and about human behaviour is to divide the mind into basic individual ‘structures’ or elements.
Behaviourism: From this perspective psychology is an objective science which should be based on observable events only. Thus, only observable behaviour is studied without making reference for internal events or ‘the mind’. Social psychologists criticise this perspective claiming it over simplifies human behaviour.
Gestalt psychology: Gestalt principles attempt to explain how we organise and perceive our world. According to this perspective, the whole is equal to more than the sum of its parts. Thus we are capable of generating meaningful organisation by combining individual parts and seeing them as a whole unit.
Psychoanalysis: A therapy approach developed by Freud. It is used to treat patients with mild to moderate emotional and psychological difficulties, particularly for character and personality disorders. It is conducted one on one with the patient and analyst. The treatment explores the patients mind in order to bring forward repressed unconscious thoughts. Important techniques in psychoanalysis include free association, transference, interpretation-link and dream analysis.
Psychoanalysis can take the form of the following schools of thought;- Humanistic, Freudian, Jungian, Adlerian, Existential, Phenomenological, Lacanian, relational, modern, and interpersonal.
Cognitive Psychology: This approach focuses on how people process, store, and retrieve information and how this information is used to reason and solve problems. Thus, mental functions can be understood by scientific methods and described as information processing models. The cognitive approach expanded on Behaviourism by accepting that internal mental states do exist.
Existentialism: From this perspective people have freedom of choice and are responsible for the consequences of their actions. Each individual’s experiences are unique and the only certainty in life is death. This perspective has its roots in 20th century traditional philosophy.
Psychoanalysis can take the forms of the following schools of thought:
Humanistic: A perspective that focuses on the human dimension of psychology emphasising each individual’s values, intentions, and subjective experience of their world. Human beings have free will and thus behave in intentional ways as opposed to passively reacting to their environments. Examples of humanistic therapies include sensory awareness, encounter groups, existential analysis, Gestalt therapy, logo therapy, and various transpersonal, human-potential, holistic-health, and addiction-recovery schools.
Freudian: Mental experiences from this perspective consist of conscious and unconscious thoughts. Personality is divided into the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud developed psychoanalysis in order to uncover unconscious and repressed thoughts and emotions which lead to psychological and personality disturbances.
Jungian or Analytical psychology: A school of thought developed by Carl Jung, which emphasises the importance of dreaming, fantasies, myths, fairy tales, superstition and occultism in order to understand the human psyche. Jung’s theory differs from Freud’s in that he attached less importance to the role of childhood sexual conflicts in the development of psychological and personality problems. From this perspective the unconscious mind consists of the individual’s unconscious as well as a collective unconscious, derived from past collective experience. Harmony and good mental health is achieved by finding the right balance for opposing forces in the personality. Techniques such as dream analysis and art and poetry are used in order to understand what is going on in the unconscious.
Adlerian or Individual psychology: From this perspective, because man is a social being, it is important to understand his way of life as well as how he deals with relationships, work, and love. Man intrinsically strives for perfection, and it is this that may lead to feelings of inferiority. People with psychological or personality problems suffer from intense inferiority feelings that keep them continuously thinking about themselves. Striving toward perfection with the acceptance of being imperfect leads toward improvement and personal maturity.
Existential: According to this perspective, human beings are alone in this world, and as such experience feelings of emptiness and meaninglessness in their life. The only way to overcome these feelings is to create values and aims in life, which will allow us to turn these feelings of meaninglessness into meaningfulness. As such therapists following this approach attempt to help their clients understand the reason behind the emptiness and anxiety they are experienced in their life, and help them develop coping strategies which will allow them to act as free agents capable of making choices and decisions to improve the quality of their life and reach self satisfaction.
Self Psychology: This psychoanalytic theory places emphasis on this self, with particular focus on the narcissistic personality. Narcissism is a psychological condition characterized by self-preoccupation, lack of empathy, and unconscious deficits in self-esteem. In this approach, therapists play an active, rather than passive role in helping their clients achieve a balanced and healthy state of mind.
Lacanian Psychology: Developed by Lacan, who emphasised language as the mirror of the unconscious mind and introduced the study of language into psychoanalysis. From this perspective children go through what Lacan called the mirror stage, which is the first time the child perceives themselves in the mirror. What happens when the child begins to feel aware of themselves, sets the stage for future psychic development. It is also at this stage that children become aware of the importance of language in order to communicate their needs to their parents. This also influences future development.
Object relations theory: Championed in the 1940s and 50's by British psychologists Ronald Fairbairn, D.W. Winnicott, Harry Guntrip, and others, who proposed that the ego-self exists only in relation to other objects, which may be external or internal. The internal objects are internalized versions of external objects, primarily formed from early interactions with the parents. There are three fundamental feelings that can exist between the self and the other - attachment, frustration, and rejection. These feelings are universal emotional states and play a major role in the development of the personality.
Interpersonal Psychoanalysis: First developed by Harry Stack Sullivan, this perspective argues that in order to understand the causes and cures of mental disorders, it is necessary to learn about patients interpersonal interactions with others. By engaging in detailed inquiries into patient’s interactions, the patient will become gradually become more aware of any patterns in their interactions that they may have been selectively unaware of.
Relational Psychoanalysis: This form of psychoanalysis attempts to integrate (object relations theory-link) with (Interpersonal psychoanalysis-link). Emphasis is placed on relationships, both real and imagined, based on the argument that early relationships with parents and other figures play a major role in personality development.
Within the schools of thought, the following approaches can be used:
Person Centered: This treatment aims to create a more personal relationship between the therapist and patient, allowing the patient to gradually realize that they have the power from within to help themselves. By placing more emphasis on the future rather than on recalling the past, the therapist can push the patient towards growth and a more satisfied and fulfilled self, capable of coping with any specific event or problem they may be having.
Psychodynamic: This form of psychotherapy is based on the psychodynamic approach, which focuses on the interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality and psyche, and how those relate to mental, emotional and motivational forces, particularly at an unconscious level. As such, this type of psychotherapy pools together a range of different techniques, depending on what would be the most appropriate for the client.
Transpersonal: The study of the mystical aspects of the mind. Transpersonal psychology considers issues such as spiritual self development, peak experiences, and mystical experiences. Spiritual practices are used including trance and religious conversion.
Integrative Psychotherapy: This treatment combines several different psychological techniques based on several different theories.
Cognitive Analytic: A short form of (psychotherapy-link) used to treat several different disorders or difficulties including (anxiety-link) and (depression-link). Typically, therapy lasts for sixteen sessions, but can last for longer or fewer sessions depending on the persons needs. Treatment involves identifying patterns in the client’s past behaviours and identifying how certain maladaptive coping strategies the client habitually uses have emerged, as well as how they could be improved. The therapist and client then begin developing a plan to bring about change.
Therapies incorporate a large area. These are some of them:
Cognitive Behavior Therapy: This treatment is based on the idea that people with disorders have deficits in cognition i.e. thinking, as well as engaging in maladaptive behaviors. Thus, this approach uses a number of techniques to alter negative thinking, for example encouraging positive self talk, and a number of techniques to teach coping strategies such as reinforcing good behavior. Relaxation and distraction techniques are also commonly used. This therapy can be used to treat disorders such as anxiety and depression. Usually runs from 12-15 sessions.
Cognitive Therapy: Based on the idea that maladaptive Cognitions i.e. thought patterns, are responsible for causing and maintaining disorders such as (depression-link) and (anxiety-link). Thus, this form of therapy aims to identify and change these distorted thinking patterns, through techniques such as encouraging positive self talk, and by challenging previous beliefs.
Gestalt Therapy: Incorporates a strong focus on present situations rather than on the past, with no attempt from the therapist to interpret experiences for the patient. Gestalt therapy uses a range of techniques usually practiced in groups, but also with couples, individuals, family, and children. Techniques include role playing, where the individual imagines that they are talking to the person with whom they have an unresolved issue with. This allows the patient to express any anger or pain they feel towards that person as well as gain important insights into any feelings and emotions buried in the unconscious. Battacca bats and padded sticks are also sometimes used to hit sofas or chairs allowing patients to express their anger in healthy and safe ways.
Person Centred Therapy: The main method of treatment is unstructured non directive talking therapy, where the therapist mirrors statements expressed by the patient, helping them explore and understand their own feelings. As the relationship between the therapist and individual develops, and the individual begins to understand their own feelings better, they can decide what changes they need to make to achieve personal growth and satisfaction.
Emotional Intelligence Therapy or Human Givens: From this perspective, every single person, irrespective of culture, is born with essential physical and emotional needs as well as innate abilities called ‘resources’ that help us fulfil those needs. Physical needs include water, food, and warmth. Emotional needs include security, a sense of autonomy and control, and friendship and intimacy. When too many innate needs are not being met, or when our resources are not being used correctly, individuals as well as those around them will feel distressed. Human givens therapy is used to treat a wide range of disorders such as anxiety, depression, addiction, trauma, and anger and relationship problems.
Existential Therapy: Rather than focusing on the past, or eliminating patients’ anxieties, existential therapists encourage patients to confront and face their anxieties. The patient is encouraged to find their own path and make their own choices, taking control of their lives while at the same time reflecting on the aloneness and meaningless of the world and creating their own personal meaning. By gaining a sense of responsibility for their actions and experiences in life, patients become more able to freely choose what they want to do and where they want to go next in life.
People can suffer from several different problems and disorders at any point in their lives. The most common of which are:
Anxiety Disorder: One of the most common disorders experienced, of which the central feature is anxiety. There are several different types of anxiety disorders including panic disorder, panic disorder with agoraphobia, Social phobia, Specific phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, acute-stress disorder, and generalised anxiety disorder. Anxiety consists of a mixture of physiological symptoms, such as increased heart rate and shortness of breath, behavioural signs including avoidance of the feared situation, and cognitive components such as overestimation of danger.
Panic Disorder: People suffering from this disorder experience repeated panic attacks as well as a fear of the panic attacks reoccurrence. Panic attacks are sudden, discrete periods of intense anxiety, discomfort and fear. Symptoms include sweating, trembling, dizziness, depersonalisation, elevated heart rate, nausea, shortness of breath, fear of dying, losing control, or going crazy and choking, tingling, or chest pains. Panic disorder differs from other anxiety disorders in that panic can occur at any time with no trigger. Panic disorder can be treated through hypnotherapy, CBT and medication.
Agoraphobia: The fear of being out in public, or of being in places in which escape might be embarrassing or difficult, or where help may be unavailable. In extreme cases, this can result in the person being unable to leave the safety of their home. Agoraphobia usually, but not necessarily, is accompanied by panic attacks. A person may experience a sudden panic attack which results in them avoiding the place where it happened for fear of it happening again. In this case, it is not the fear of certain places, but the fear of having panic attacks in certain places that is the problem. This is known as Agoraphobia with panic disorder. Successful treatment is possible with the correct combination of medication and therapy.
Social Phobia: A phobia is an intense irrational fear of a specific object or situation that results in the person avoiding that situation. Social phobia is the fear of social situations that involve interaction with other people. Those with social phobia experience extreme anxiety about being judged, criticised, or humiliated in front of other people. Situations such as being centre of attention, speaking in public, or being introduced to strangers is likely to cause extreme distress for these people. When in social situations, these people may experience intense fear, nervousness, blushing, excessive sweating, trembling or muscle twitches. Social phobia can be successfully treated with CBT, medication and other therapies.
Specific Phobia: An intense fear of a specific situation or object such as being near certain animals, heights, or being in closed spaces. Contact with the phobia can lead to panic attacks, and the phobic situation will be avoided wherever possible. If left untreated specific phobia is likely to continue with the same intensity. How much distress this disorder causes depends on the extent to which the phobic situation can be avoided. CBT is particularly effective for treating phobias.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A type of anxiety disorder, where the sufferer experiences unpleasant, recurrent, persistent thoughts, called obsessions. In order to reduce anxiety caused by these obsessions, sufferers may engage in strange, ritualised behaviours, called compulsions. Common compulsions include repeated washing, particularly the hands, constantly checking that doors are locked and appliances are switched off, counting and arranging. Common obsessions include a fear of dirt and contamination, and an obsession of arrangement and symmetry. The sufferer may experience obsessions and compulsions, or compulsions alone. The compulsions cause the sufferer marked distress, are time consuming, and significantly interfere with the persons daily routine and relationships with others. Behavioural therapy may be effective at treating the compulsions associated with OCD, whereas cognitive therapy may be useful in treating the obsessions.
Generalised Anxiety: Those with GAD experience chronic, recurrent episodes of anxiety, concerning health, daily problems, or other general situations, that can last days, weeks, or even months. Can be effectively treated with therapy.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Extreme anxiety, caused by exposure to a traumatic event where the individual’s or another person’s life was under threat. Individuals with PTSD repeatedly re experience the traumatic event through recurrent dreams or nightmares, are unable to stop thinking about the event, and experience flashbacks and auditory hallucinations when re living the trauma. During a flashback the person relives the traumatic event and may lose complete touch with reality, believing the traumatising event is happening again. This could last from minutes up to hours. Other symptoms of PTSD include avoidance of recall situations, emotional blunting, hyper-alertness, anger, irritability, guilt and depression. Symptoms tend to appear after 3 months, although in some situations symptoms appear years after the traumatic event. Several therapies exist for the treatment of PTSD including CBT, relaxation, and EMDR.
Acute Stress Disorder: Extreme anxiety resulting from exposure to a traumatic event. The symptoms are similar to PTSD. However, unlike PTSD, symptoms appear 1 month after the traumatic event rather than 3.
Depression or Major Depressive Disorder: One of the most common disorders experienced in society, characterised by mood disturbances. Depression can occur at any stage of life. Symptoms include constant feelings of sadness, irritability, or tension, decreased interest or pleasure in usual activities or hobbies, loss of energy, feeling tired despite lack of activity, a change in appetite, with significant weight loss or weight gain, a change in sleeping patterns, such as difficulty sleeping, early morning awakening, or sleeping too much, restlessness or feeling slowed down decreased ability to make decisions or concentrate, feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, or guilt, and thoughts of suicide or death. Several successful treatments exist for depression, including psychotherapy, cognitive behaviour therapy, and medication.
Dysthemia: A mild but long lasting depressive state. Individuals with this disorder may experience a chronic low mood throughout their daily lives as well as a loss of motivation, social withdrawal, and feelings of sadness. If the dysthemic state lasts for 2 years or longer the individual would be at greater risk of a major depressive episode.
Seasonal Affective Disorder: A form of depression that usually occurs in the fall or in winter. Symptoms include increased sleep, fatigue, depression, weight gain, social withdrawal, reduced sex drive, and a difficulty in performing everyday tasks. Suicidal thoughts have also been reported by some individuals with SAD. SAD is thought to be associated with lack of daylight and as such is more common in places with long winters and short daylight hours. SAD can be treated using light therapy, where a person sits under an artificial light for a certain amount of time, as well as medication or psychotherapy.
Bipolar or Manic Depressive Disorder: A mood disorder characterised by extreme mood swings and emotional changes. Individuals with this disorder alternate between manic and depressive episodes. Mania involves feelings of elation and euphoria, talkativeness, increased sociability, and feelings of self importance, as well as irritability, inability to sleep, impulsiveness, risk taking, and hyperactivity. In extreme cases mania can induce hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms. Manic episodes are usually followed by depressive episodes where individuals experience fatigue, loss of motivation, excessive sleep, feelings of despair, difficulty concentrating, and slowed mental and physical abilities. Manic and depressive episodes can usually be controlled by medication, the most common of which is the drug Lithium. Combining medication and a form of psychotherapy has also been shown to be a useful method of treatment. It is important for the individual to learn to recognise when they are having a manic or depressive episode so as to prevent a relapse. This can be done through therapy.
Postpartum Depression: A mood disorder that occurs after childbirth. Onset is usually 5 to 8 weeks after delivery, and the disorder can last from 6 months to a year or longer. Symptoms include gradual feelings of sadness, depression, lack of energy, chronic fatigue, inability to sleep, change in appetite and difficulty caring for the baby. There are several ways to treat PPD, including psychotherapy, counselling, group therapies, medication, and acupuncture. At the moment the root cause of PPD is still not known.
People can sometimes become addicted to certain substances. These include:
Alcohol Dependency: The continued use and dependence on alcohol despite adverse effects on an individual’s health and relationships with others. An individual will continue to drink in situations in which it is physically hazardous. Often excessive drinking will lead the individual to neglect major role obligations, such as caring for children or attending work. The continuous drinking is also likely to cause recurrent alcohol related legal problems. The continued use of alcohol leads to the development of tolerance to the effects of alcohol which leads individuals to increase consumption. Not consuming alcohol results in both mental and physical withdrawal. Examples of physical withdrawal include tremors and shaking which can only be alleviated through drinking alcohol. Health problems include high blood pressure, muscle weakness (including the heart), heart rhythm disturbances, anaemia, clotting disorders, decreased immunity to infections, gastrointestinal inflammation and irritation, acute and chronic problems with the pancreas, low blood sugar, high blood fat content, interference with reproductive fertility, and weakened bones, poor nutrition, memory disorders, difficulty with balance and walking, liver disease including cirrhosis and hepatitis.
Problem Gambling: An urge to gamble, despite negative consequences or a desire to stop. Problem gambling that is really severe can be diagnosed as pathological gambling, which is now recognised as a mental disorder. Pathological gambling is persistent and recurrent maladaptive gambling behaviour including frequent thoughts about gambling, withdrawal symptoms when attempting to reduce or stop gambling, developing a tolerance towards gambling so that the individual needs larger or more frequent wagers to achieve the same rush, gambling in order to escape or feel better, attempting to win back gambling losses through more gambling, lying to friends or family about extent to gambling, stealing and committing illegal acts in order to fund gambling or pay off gambling debts, gambling despite the risk of losing a significant relationship, job, or opportunity, and experiencing a loss of control over gambling behaviour. Several treatments exist to help with gambling problems, including counselling, gamblers anonymous, self help groups, medication, and CBT.
Stress: Although stress in itself is not necessarily harmful, too much stress can result in emotional, physical, and mental symptoms. Emotional symptoms include depression, anxiety, irritability, and moodiness. Physical symptoms include headaches, insomnia, high blood pressure, weight loss or gain, and upset stomach. Mental symptoms include loss of concentration, forgetfulness, disorganisation and negative thinking. Stress can have positive affects, encouraging people to reach their goals and overcome challenges. However, when an individual feels that they are unable to cope with the level of stress they face that is when stress leads to negative effects. Several factors can lead to stress including the workplace, bereavement, divorce, marriage and having a new child. Stress is created by what we think rather than what really happened and so it is likely different people will find different things stressful. The important thing is learning ways to cope with stress rather than trying to eliminate stress. CBT and counselling are one of many ways to help develop coping strategies to help deal with stress.
Eating Disorders: Disorders characterised by abnormal eating behaviours and beliefs about eating. The three main eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder.
Anorexia Nervosa: Refusal to maintain a minimal body weight, an intense fear of becoming fat, distorted body image, and, if female, the absence of menstrual periods for at least 3 months. Individuals with anorexia will maintain an abnormally low weight usually by dieting severely, not eating at all, and by exercising compulsively. Prolonged starvation affects most of the organs and leads to several medical problems. These include congestive heart failure, sudden death, growth retardation, dental problems, constipation, stomach rupture, swelling of the salivary glands, anaemia and other abnormalities of the blood, loss of kidney function, and osteoporosis. Most patients diagnosed with anorexia are females, although the number of males with anorexia also appears to be rising. The peak age for onset tends to be between 14 and 18 years of age although this is variable. Those with anorexia also tend to have feelings of isolation, low self esteem, and depression. The cause of anorexia still remains unknown and is assumed to rise from an interaction between cultural, interpersonal, as well as biological factors. For patients who are severely underweight and in danger of serious medical problems hospitalisation is recommended until weight becomes more stable. For patients who are not severely malnourished treatments can include psychotherapy, individual or group therapy, as well as family therapy. The earlier treatment occurs, the better the prognosis.
Bulimia Nervosa: Individuals with this disorder consume large amounts of food and then try to rid themselves of the food and calories by fasting, excessive exercise, vomiting, or using laxatives. Bulimics find that this type of behaviour reduces stress and relives anxiety. Symptoms of this disorder include preoccupation with body weight, using the bathroom frequently after meals, depression or mood swings and irregular menstrual periods. In the case of purging, heart failure can result due to loss of vital minerals such as potassium. Vomiting causes other serious problems, including acid-related scarring of the fingers (if used to induce vomiting) and damage to tooth enamel. In addition, the tube that brings food from the mouth to the stomach (the oesophagus) often becomes inflamed and salivary glands can become swollen. Bulimic behaviour is very secretive and is often accompanied by feelings of guilt and shame. Because bulimics usually have an average body weight to the outsider they appear healthy. Quite often people with bulimia also have other psychiatric problems such as depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. The majority of bulimics are female in their teens and early twenty but this is variable. Treatments include psychotherapy, behavioural therapy, family therapy, and group or individual therapy.
Binge Eating Disorder: Characterised by a loss of control over eating behaviour. During a binge eating episode an unnaturally large amount of food is consumed in a short period of time. However, unlike bulimia (link), the individual with the disorder does not engage in extreme behaviours such as vomiting or excessive exercise in order to control their weight. The individual will often eat until they are physically uncomfortable and eat even when they aren’t hungry. The individual will often binge eat when alone in order to hide the disorder, and feelings of guilt and shame are usually experienced after an episode. Because of the nature of the disorder, most binge eaters are overweight or obese. Individuals with this disorder often engage in binge eating in order to relive extreme emotional stress. In addition those with binge eating disorders often also have other psychiatric disorders such as major depression , panic disorder, and PTSD. BED usually occurs between adolescence and early 20’s. Possible causes of BED include constantly dieting and obsessing about body weight, as well as growing up in a family that puts unnatural emphasis on food. CBT , group therapy, or interpersonal psychotherapy may be used in order to treat the disorder. It is important to discover the emotional motives, distorted thinking, and behaviour patterns involved in BED in order to successfully treat the disorder.
Relationship Issues: Relationships form an important part of most people’s lives and can offer a sense of security, belonging, happiness, and support. Many people experience relationship issues at some point, whether it is with a friend, with family, or with a partner. If the relationship is important, and both parties are willing to work, counselling and therapy can be very successful at resolving these issues. Family therapy, interpersonal therapy, and marriage counselling have all been successful at helping to resolve relationship issues.
Marriage Counselling: A psychotherapy that aims to resolve problems for married couples as well as established partners. The therapy aims to uncover the underlying problems in a relationship. The counsellor helps make the couple understand that in most cases both partners contribute to problems in the relationship, and the couple can then learn how to communicate and interact with each other in a different way. Marriage counselling can take place prior to marriage and can also be helpful for couples who are separating and or going through a divorce and negotiating inter-personal issues and child custody for example.
Domestic Violence: Any abusive, violent, coercive, forceful, or threatening act or word inflicted by one member of a family or household on another. Domestic violence can take the form of physical violence, including direct physical violence ranging from unwanted physical contact to rape and murder. Indirect physical violence may include destruction of objects, striking or throwing objects near the victim, or harm to pets. In addition to physical violence, spousal abuse often includes mental or emotional abuse, including verbal threats of physical violence to the victim, the self, or others including children. Psychological abuse may also involve economic and/or social control, such as controlling victim's money and other economic resources, preventing victim from seeing friends and relatives, actively sabotaging victim's social relationships and isolating victim from social contacts. Domestic violence most often refers to violence between married or cohabiting couples, although it sometimes refers to violence against other members of a household, such as children or elderly relative. People who are repeatedly victimized by spouses or other partners often suffer from low self-esteem, feelings of shame and guilt, and a sense that they are trapped in a situation from which there is no escape. Counselling, psychotherapy, and family therapy are all successful at treating the emotional scars resulting from domestic violence and can help rebuild the confidence and self esteem that has been lost through domestic abuse.
Bullying: The act of intentionally causing unhappiness to others through verbal harassment, physical assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion such as manipulation. The harassment can be verbal, physical and/or emotional. Bullying can occur in schools, the workplace, at home and in neighbourhoods. Bullying is characterized by an individual behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person. Bullies may behave this way to be perceived as popular or tough or to get attention. They may bully out of jealousy or be acting out because they themselves are bullied. In schools, bullying usually occurs in areas with minimal or no adult supervision. Bullying in school sometimes consists of a group of students taking advantage of, or isolating one student in particular, and outnumbering him/her. Targets of bullying in school are often pupils who are considered strange or different by their peers to begin with, making the situation harder for them to deal with. Bullying can also be perpetrated by teachers. Unlike the more physical form of schoolyard bullying, workplace bullying often takes place within the established rules and policies of the organization and society. The effects of bullying can be serious and even fatal. About 85% of bullying victims suffer long term psychological damage and stress related disease later in their lives. Victims of bullying can suffer from long term emotional, academic, and behavioural problems. Bullying can cause loneliness, depression, and anxiety as a bullying victim begins to believe that something is wrong with them. Victims can also have a loss of confidence and an increase in susceptibility to illness. Counselling and psychotherapy can help the victim of bullying regain the confidence they have lost and rebuild their self esteem.
